Cybersecurity While functional safety is related to system reliability, cybersecurity must account for malicious attacks on vehicle systems. Modern vehicles have multiple potential attack surfaces, such as integrated Wi-Fi, cellular, Bluetooth, on-board diagnostics (OBD), USB, and other connection points that provide potential paths into the vehicle’s communication system. Even network bus circuits are accessed as entry points. Cybersecurity is achieved through a layered approach, incorporating security mechanisms at key points in the architecture, including hardware protection in and around the ECU, software-based in-vehicle protection, network monitoring inside and outside the vehicle, and secure cloud services. Specific measures include domain isolation, introduction of hardware security module (HSM), firewall, intrusion detection/prevention system (IDS/IPS) and so on.